Q.आयात और निर्यात क्या है?

उत्तर। आयात:-

आयात के दो मूल प्रकार हैं:

1. औद्योगिक और उपभोक्ता सामान।

2. मध्यवर्ती सामान और सेवाएं।

निर्यात:-

निर्यात मुख्यतः दो प्रकार का होता है:

1. प्रत्यक्ष निर्यात export

2. में - प्रत्यक्ष निर्यात

1. प्रत्यक्ष निर्यात:-

• कंपनी का अपना कॉर्पोरेट निर्यात प्रावधान स्थापित करके।
• विदेशी बिक्री प्रतिनिधि और एजेंट की नियुक्ति करके।
• विदेशी आधारित वितरकों और खुदरा विक्रेताओं/एजेंटों के माध्यम से।
• विदेशी आधारित राज्य व्यापार निगम के माध्यम से।
• विदेशी बिक्री शाखाओं के माध्यम से।

2. इन-डायरेक्ट एक्सपोर्टिंग:-

अर्थात बिचौलियों के माध्यम से विदेशों में माल की बिक्री। अप्रत्यक्ष निर्यात में स्वतंत्र बिचौलियों की मदद और उत्पादों को विदेशों में भेजने की बिक्री क्षमता का उपयोग करना शामिल है। अप्रत्यक्ष निर्यात के कुछ प्रमुख प्रकार के बिचौलिये इस प्रकार हैं:

• कमीशन एजेंट।
• घरेलू आधारित निर्यात व्यापारी या निर्यात व्यापार कंपनियां।
• एजेंट ख़रीदना या ख़रीदना।
• निर्यात प्रबंधन कंपनियां।
• सहकारी संस्थाएं।

Q.:- What is Non Woven?

Ans. Introduction:-

• Non woven is one type of fabric that is not made by weaving or knitting of interlacing of yarn.
• Non woven are not used on yarn and do not contain yarns.
• In other words, non-woven are made from fibrous webs bonded together by either mechanical entanglement, thermal fusion, by forming chemical complexes or by using resin/adhesives.

-:Process:-

1. selection and preparation of fabric

2. Web formation

3. Web bonding

4. Finishing

1.1. Selection and preparation of fabric:-

The first step in the production of a non woven is the selection fibre with suitable specifications depending on the end use of the fabric. Both filament and staple fibre fibres can be used any they can be natural, man made or of mineral origin.

1.2. Web formation:-

The next step is the arrangement of fibres/filaments in a sheet or web. While the dry-laid and we-laid technique are generally used for short staple length fibres, spun-laid and meltfilaments fibres.

1.Dry - laid :-

There are two types of techniques of form dry - laid web:

Carding, air-laying

Carding:-

Cording is a mechanical process of forming a web. After opening and blending, the fibres are converted to the carding machine by air transport. The fibres are then combed into web by the carding machine.

Carding webs can be two types:

1. Parallel - laid web
2. Cross - laid web

1. Parallel - laid web:-

The fibres are passed through a carding. Machine which puts them in parallel alignment. Thin web of parallel fibres are laid overeach other to form multilayer webs. This produces fabric that has high lengthwise strength but low crosswise strength. In woollen or worsted card is used on account of its greater flexibility and productivity.

2. Cross - laid web:-

The webs are criss crossed successively over each other. The fabric has greater crosswise strength than the parallel - laid web type.

1.3. Air - laid web:-

In this process, the fibers are suspended in air within a forming system and deposited on a moving forming screen or rotating perforated cylinder. The randomly oriented air - formed batt is bonded together with heat, glued with a coating of adhesive or held together by mechanical entanglement, usually involving needles that grab the fibres and pull them through the web. Air laid non - wovens are highly absorbent fabrics. Wet and dry wipes and absorbent cores for hygiene products are two uses for air laid non-wovens.

1.4. Wet - laid web:-

Fibers are mixed with chemicals and are processed through beaters & pullers to pass through a wire screen. The wet - laid non - woven process is a fiber forming process, and wet - laying takes place bet ween the head box and the forming wire. In this area, the fibers are suspended in water slurry and deposited on a moving screen. The water drains out and a fiber web is formed. The wet - laid web is further dewatered, consolidated, by pressing between rollers, and dried. Wet - laid web forming allows a wide range of fibre arientation. Wet - laid non - wovens are developed and manufactured for products such as filters, tea bags, wallpaper, hygiene products, medical wrap and drapes, wipes, food packaging, etc.

1. Continuous filaments web

Spun laid in this polymer granules are melted and molten polymer is extruded through the spinneret. After the extrusion of the filaments from the web. A high temperature is maintained at this stages so that the fibres do not solidify completely leading to sticking of the filaments with one another as they criss cross on the belt. The spun - laid non woven tend to have low bulk and high tensile and tearing strength, they are used for numerous industrial application such as protective clothing, filters, geotextile.

2. Melt-blown

In melt - blown web formation, low viscosity polymers are extruded in a high velocity airstream through the spinneret. This scatters the melt, solidifies it and breaks it up in to fibrous web. Surgical face masks, surgical towels, operating room drapes and gowns, industrial wipes, wrappings etc.

3. Web Bonding

Bonding plays an important role when manufacturing non-woven the loose conesion of the fibers is treated in one or more steps - to form a more solid type of web, the non woven.

Generally speaking we distinguish between three different technologies,thermal , chemical and mechanical. The selection of the bonding technology is decisive for the features and the applications of the non-woven.

 1. Mechanical Bonding

• In mechanical bonding the strengthening of  the web is achieved by inter - fibre friction as a result of the physical entanglement of the fibres. There are two main type of mechanical bonding.
• Needle punching, specially designed needles are pushed and pulled through the web to entangle the fibres. Webs of different characteristics can be needled together to produce a graduation of properties difficult to achieve by other means. Needle punching can be used with most fibre types but, because of the nature of the process, not with very fine fibers.
• Hydroentanglement is commonly applied carded or wetlaid webs and uses find, high pressure water jets to cause the fibres to interlace.

2. Chemical bonding

• Chemical bonding refers to the application of a liquid - based bonding agent to the web. Three groups of materials are commonly used as binders - acrylate polymers and copolymers, styrene - butadiene copolymers and vinyl acetate ethylene copolymers. Water based binder systems are the most widely used but powdered adhesives, foam and in some cases organic solvent solutions can be found.
• The binder can be applied in many ways. It can be applied uniformly by impregnating, coating or spraying or intermittently, as in print bonding.

3. Thermal bonding

• This method uses the thermoplastic properties of certain synthetic fibres to form bonds under controlled heating. In some cases, the web fibres itself can be used, but more often a low melt fibre or bicomponent fibre is introduced at the web formation stage to perform the binding function later in the process.

There are several thermal bonding systems in use:

• Calendaring uses heat and high pressure applied through rollers to welt the fibre webs together at high speed.
• Through - air thermal bonding makes bulkier products by the overall bonding of a web containing law melting fibre. This takes place in a carefully controlled hat air stream.
• Drum and blanket systems apply pressure and heat to make products of average bulk.
• Ultrasonic bonding is a technology in which molecules of the fibres are being excited under a patterned roller by high frequency movement of a sonotrode which produces internal heating and softening of the fibres.

Thanking you for read my blog 😁😁

Written by- Rashmi

Read More:-

Stencil_Making

Sanganeri_Prints

Textile_Design

Screen_Printing

Roller_Printing

Block_Printing

 Introduction:-

Historical background:-

1.Materials and tools requested:-

The material for making a stencil should be thin and easy to cut. The following materials may be used for this purpose:

• Cartridge sheet 
• Ivory sheet 
• Bond paper 
• Discarded photographic film nagatives 
• Discarded x - ray film 
• Plastic sheets

2. Devices for cutting stencils:-

• Paper cutter 
• Stencil cutting knife 
• Scissors
• Razor blades 
• Metal ruler ( for cutting straight lines)

3. Colours for printing with stencils:-

1. Poster colours:-

2. Acrylic colours:-

3. Fabric colours:-

4. Acramin pigment colours:-

4. Tools for applying paint:-

• Cotton pads
• Stencil brushes
• A stiff bristle brush ( with trimmed bristles)

5. Other materials:-

• A sheet of glass to act as a surface for keeping the stencil paper while it is being cut.

• Pencils 

• Thumb pins 

• Adhesive tapes 

• Clean rags 

• Old newspapers

• Drawing papers 

• Carbon paper

• Graphite paper 

• Tracing paper 

• A cleaning solvent like water, sprit etc.

6. The stencil making and printing process:-

The stencil making and printing processes proceed as follows:

1. Selection of a design:-

An appropriate design suitable for the purpose of decoration in a particular context is first selected. The design can be taken from nature or from the surroundings or it may be based on some geometric pattern, flowers, leaves, plants, birds or animals, cartoons, magazine illustrations, a piece of art or craft or one's own drawing, or alphabetical letters etc., All these are appropriate. A bold type of design is good for an efficient stencil printing output some bold types of symmetrical design are shown in good, clear alphabetical letters can also be produced easily and quickly using a standard alphabet stencil sheet.

2. Tranfer of the design:-

The next step is to transfer this design onto a stencil card using a tracing paper or a carbon paper. A stencil card can be a suitable paper or plastic material. The stencil material may be fastened on to a glass sheet or a hard cardboard. The design outline is then transferred on to the stencil material using a carbon paper.

3. Cutting out the design on the design on the stencil:-

After transferring the design on to stencil card, the next step is to cut out the stencil carefully leaving the "ties" and a thick border around the outline. Keep the stencil sheet on a hard surface, like glass or a hard board, for easy cutting. Cut the entire design through the stencil board, using a stencil cutting knife or razor blade or a paper cutter. Try to make clean sharp cuts.

4. Printing with the stencil :-

The final and the most interesting part is to use the stencil to print a fabric this is done by first securing the fabric on a rigid support ( like a table ) in a tight stretched state and then applying the colour with the help of cotton padding or stencil brush  or a painting brush or even a tooth brush. Using any of there devices, the colour is applied evenly through the openings in the stencil on to wood, plastic, glass etc.

5. Cleaning the stencil:-

Finally the stencil should be cleaned immediately before the paint left on it dries up and becomes difficult to remove. For cleaning, place the stencil on a newspaper and wipe it with a rag moistened with water. Core should be taken that small bridges on the stencil are not broken while cleaning. Brushes should be cleaned throughly In solvent and then washed with warm soapy water.

Value addition:-

After stencil printing a design on a cloth, some embroidery work on it can produce remarkable results, if done with panache for colour and creativity.

      A single stenciled motif such as a sailing ship 

      or a palm tree, for example, is easy to cut out 

      and can be stenciled onto a t - shirt or a table 

      mat , the pocket of a shirt or the front of a 

      laundry bag, along with some extra

      Ornamentation done over the print

Nowadays stencil printing techniques are being used in design houses for sampling of designs, so as to cut down the time for getting the end product of a sample.

-: Introduction:-

Design/motifs:-

Colours:-

Utility articles and material:-

Techniques:-

Sanganer became the prestigious work center for block printing with elaborate techniques:

1. Direct process 

2. Resist method

3. Discharge process

4. Rogan printing 

1. Direct process:-

2. Resist method:-

3. Discharge process:-

4. Rogan printing:-

The fabric to be block printed is washed free of starch and soft bleached the fabric to be printed is pinned over the table and printed is pinned over the table and printed block by block. The printing starts from left to right. The colour is evened out in a tray with a wedge of wood and the block dipped into the colour when the block is applied to the fabric. It, is slammed hard with the fist on the handle so, that a good impression may register.

-:Block printing:-

• Block printing is the oldest method of the local application of color the textile.
• It is very similar to the use of a rubber stamp and a an ink pad. 

-: History of block printing in India:-

• Recordsrds show that as for back as the 12th century, sereral centres in the south, on the western and eastern coasts of India became renowned for their excellent printed cotton.

• On the south eastern coast the brush or kalam(pen) was used, and the resist applied by the same method. 

-: Centres of Block Printing:-

The main center for block printing in India are:

1. Andhra Pradesh (kalamkari)

2.Gujarat (ajrakh)

3.rajasthan (sanganeri)

4. Madhya Pradesh (bagh print)

5.Uttar Pradesh

6. West bengal

-:Tools for block printing:-

The block makers mainly make two types of block:

1.wooden block 

2.metal block

-: Colours/dyes for block printing:-

:The main raw materials are colours/dyes:

1.Vegetable/ natural dyes:-

Indigo Blue:-

Red :- 

Black:-

Green:-

2.Discharge dyes:-

3.Pigment dyes:-

4.Reactive dyes:-

5.Rapid fast colours:-

-: Process of block printing:-

(A) washing 

(B) marking

(C) printing

(D) Drying

(E) washing 

(a) Washing :-

(B) Marking:-

(c) printing:-

• Printing starts from left to right.
• Number of colour used in the design defines the number of blocks to be used.
• First outline colour is applied and then the filling colours. Specific point in the block guides the printer of the repeat impression. The process of printing is called as- Chapaai.

(D) Drying:-

After the printing is completed the fabric is dried out in sun for the colour to get fixed. This is done specially for the pigment dyes. The printed fabrics are handled with utmost care so that the colour are not transferred to other areas, therefore they are wrapped in plastic or newspaper after dying. The process is called as - sukhaai.

(E) washing:-

Fabric then goes through the process of steaming in the special boilers constructed for this purpose. After steaming, the material is washed thoroughly in large quantities of water and dried in the sun. Once the fabric is washed and dried ironing is done, which further fixes the colour permanently. This final Process of washing is called - Dhulaai.

-:Advantages of block printing:-

1.Beautiful effects can be created.

2. Bright and colourful prints are obtained.

3. Any number of blocks can be used not only for different colour but also for different shade in the same colour.

4.Any type of design can be made with blocks .

5. There is no restriction in the sizeand  shape.

-:Disadvantages of block printing:-

1. Not able to give minute details to the design.

2. Absence of delicate shading and gradation.

3. Slow output and high cost.

4. Inability of perfect joining.

Written by :- RASHMI JADAUN

 -:Roller printing on textile:-

Roller printing:-

1. Improvements in the technology resulted in more elaborate roller prints in bright, rich colours from the 1820s; turkey red and chrome yellow were particularly popular.
2. Roller printing supplanted the older woodblock printing on textiles in industrialized countries until it was resurrected for textiles by william marrise in the mid - 19th century.

Contents:-

• Engraved copperplate printing 
• Bell's patent
• Roller printing machines
• Engraving of copper rollers
• See also 
• Notes 
• Reference

-: Engraved copperplate printing:-

1. Of being screwed up bodily until the rollers are lightly pressed against the central bowl;
2. Of being moved to and from side ways - so that the rollers may he laterally adjusted; and 
3. Of being moved up or down for the purpose of adjusting the rollers in vertical direction. Not with standing the great latitude of movement thus provided each roller is furnished with a box wheel, which serves the double purpose of connecting or gearing it to the driving wheel, and of affording a fine adjustment, each roller is further furnished with its own colour - box and doctors.
4. With all these delicate equipments at his command a machine printer is enabled to fit all the various parts of the most complicated patterns with an ease, dispatch and precision, which are remarkable considering the complexity and size of the machine.
5. In recent years many improvements have been made in printing machines and many additions made to their already wonderful capacities. Chief amongst these are those embodied in the intermittent and the duplex machines. In the former any or all of the rollers may be moved out of contact with the cylinder at will, and at certain intervals. Such machines are used in the printing of shawls and sarries for the Indian market. Such goods require a wide border right across their width at varying distances sometimes every three yards, sometimes every nine yards and it is to effect this, with rollers of ordinary dimensions, that intermittent machines are used. The body of the sarrie will be printed, say for six yards with eight rollers; these them drop away from the cloth and others, which have up to then been out of action, immediately fall in to contact and print a border or crossbar, say one yard wide, across the piece; they then recede from the cloth and the first eight again return and print another six yards, and so on continually.
6. The duplex or reversible machine derives its  name from the fact that it prints both sides of the cloth. It consists really of two ordinary machines so combined that when the cloth passes, fully printed on one side from the first, its plain side is exposed to the rollers of the second, which print an exact duplicate of the first impression upon it in such a way that both printings coincide. A pin pushed through the face of the cloth ought to protrude through the corresponding part of the design printed on the back if the two patterns are in good fit.
7. The advantages possessed by roller printing over all other processes are mainly three firstly, its high productivity, 10,000 to 12,000 yards being commonly printed in one day of ten hours by a single - colour machine; secondly, by its capacity of being applied to the reproduction of every style of design, ranging from the fine delicate lines of copperplate engraving and the small repeats and limited colours of the perrotine to the broadest effects of block printing and to patterns varying in repeat from I to 80 in, and thirdly, the wonderful exactitude with which each portion of an elaborate multicolour pattern can be fitted in to its proper place, and the entire absence of faulty joints at its points of repetition consideration of the utmost importance in fine delicate work where such a blur would utterly destroy the effect.

Engraving of copper rollers:-

1. By hand with a graver which cuts the metal away;
2. By etching in which the pattern is dissolved out in nitric acid;
3. By machine, in which the pattern is simply indented.

The end....

Written by:- Rashmi Jadaun.